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Research articles are reviewed regarding the effects of anabolic steroid use. The first article focuses on the relationships among body image, eating disorders, psychological characteristics, and steroid use. A second article constructs a profile of steroid users in relationship to narcissism and empathy. The last article researches the neuropsychiatric effects of anabolic steroids on individuals without prior steroid use. It is concluded that research is needed to address 3 hypotheses raised in this review. These are 1) that anabolic steroid users choose to do so as a result of psychological and sociological factors, 2) that anabolic steroid use produces neuropsychiatric effects that reinforce repeated use, and 3) that anabolic steroid use produces psychological effects that are similar to or precursors of personality disorders which have comorbidity with substance abuse disorders.

Classical conditioning of aggressive fin display in Betta splendens was investigated. Male Bettas (n = 10) were conditioned using a red light as the CS, and mirror reflection as the US. Subjects that underwent 60 conditioning and 60 extinction trials were compared to a control group (n = 10). The independent variable was contingent versus random presentations of the CS and US. The dependent variable was percentage of aggressive fin display to the CS on each of 12 test trials. During conditioning, the experimental group showed a significantly higher number of responses on test trials than both the control group and the experimental group during extinction. These findings replicate the phenomenon reported by Thompson and Sturm, with refinements including larger subject groups, inclusion of a valid control group, and a different conditioning apparatus.

In order to develop a brief and psychometrically sound measure of acceptance of feminist ideas, 3 studies were conducted using 2 samples of students and 1 sample of nonstudents. The 8-item Feminist Attitudes Scale developed is theoretically based, brief, reliable, valid, showed no "ceiling effect," and showed no social desirability response bias; thus it avoids the problems identified in reviews of previous instruments. In addition, these psychometric properties were confirmed with both students and nonstudents. The results also showed the necessity of measuring feminist attitudes without reference to the feminist label, especially outside of academic settings.

This article reviews the literature describing a possible neurobiological basis for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The importance of ADHD as a risk factor for substance abuse is discussed along with genetic evidence and a review of Khantzian's self-medication theory. Studies linking sucrose intake and neurotransmitter deficits are presented to support a hypothesis of increased dietary stimulant use in subjects with ADHD. Initial anecdotal evidence is presented along with a possible experimental design.

Previous studies of cardiovascular response patterns (CRP) have illustrated the ways in which physiological measures are differentially affected in dissimilar stressor conditions. The present experiment studied CRP during active and passive coping stressors. The CRP of 20 female participants were monitored during baseline, relaxation, active coping stressor, passive coping stressor, and recovery. It was hypothesized that participants would experience significant increases in cardiovascular measures during an active coping Stroop color and word stressor task, and significant decreases in cardiovascular measures during a passive coping condition. Heart rate (HR) was monitored throughout the experiment while systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were obtained at specified intervals in each condition. Analysis of SBP, DBP, and HR indicated that, in comparison to baseline, participants exhibited significantly greater cardiovascular measures during active coping. During passive coping, participants exhibited DBP significantly greater than baseline, depressed mean HR, and no significant changes in SBP. These findings support the hypothesis that cardiovascular functioning varies with respect to differential conditions of stress.

Personality Disorders and Contraceptive Behavior
in University Women

Carrie Melliges and William E. Snell, Jr.
Southeast Missouri State University

A study was conducted to investigate the relationship between the DSM-IV personality disorders and contraceptive behaviors. To accomplish this, a sample of university female students were asked to complete a measure of personality disorders, the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4+, and a measure of reliable and effective contraceptive behavior, the Contraceptive Behavior Scale. Correlational analyses indicated that more unreliable and ineffective contraceptive behavior was found to be associated with greater schizotypal, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder symptomology. The discussion focuses on the diverse findings associated with the different personality disorders.

Many single-gender organizations for girls have been assumed to increase the skills of their members in terms of leadership and autonomy. The present study tested the hypothesis that the perceived presence of males would inhibit adolescent females' expressions of leadership during a proposed camping excursion. Participants were 60 females who were Pathfinders, aged 10-14, members of the Girl Guides of Canada. In Group 1, 30 participants were asked to role play participation in, and respond as if they were attending, a camping experience in which all participants were expected to be female. All then completed an inventory which assessed the degree to which they expressed leadership in relation to the camp, for example, by volunteering to lead or supervise one or more activities. In Group 2, a mixed-gender condition, another 30 participants role-played participation in a similar camp but with the expectation that boys (from Scouts Canada) would be also present. Data collected on a measure of leadership were analyzed by means of analysis of covariance, linear regression, and partial correlation. Each analysis found that participants expecting a single-gender experience showed significantly higher leadership and initiative scores (at p < .038), compared to participants expecting a mixed-gender experience. These data showed that the anticipated presence of males can serve to inhibit expressions of leadership and related behaviors in female adolescents. Some implications of this finding are discussed.

Personality Disorders and Both Clinical Anger and Depression

Kenneth C. Miget and William E. Snell, Jr.
Southeast Missouri State University

There has been considerable research on personality disorders and feelings of depression, but relatively little research has examined the association between personality disorders and anger. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the relationship between personality disorder symptomology and both anger and depression. To accomplish this, a nonclinical sample (i. e., a sample of university students) was asked to complete a measure of personality disorders (PDQ-4+; Hyler, 1994), the Clinical Anger Scale (Snell et al., 1995), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1967). Correlational analyses indicated that both clinical anger and clinical depression were both found to be positively associated with the symptomology of all 12 DSM-IV personality disorders.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between scores on one personality assessment instrument, the Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP), and sales performance of employees of a major insurance company. Also assessed was the relationship between job tenure and sales performance. This research evaluated the CPP scores of 125 insurance agents who scored high on the instrument's measure of response accuracy. Results of the study indicate significant correlation between high accuracy CPP scores and sales performance, defined as average monthly commissions earned. As expected, job tenure, or length of time on the job, was a strong indicator of sales performance.

The Relationship Between Reading Level and Recidivism
In a Sample of Huber Law Inmates

Jonathon E. Leatherbury
Loyola University of Chicago Institute of Human Resources and Industrial
Relations

This study was conducted to determine whether there was a significant difference in reading level between inmates who are first-time offenders and inmates who are repeat offenders. Analyses reveal a significant difference in obtained reading level between first-time offender and repeat offender conditions. Also a significant, negative correlation was found to describe the relationship between reading level and recidivism. The findings indicate that repeat offenders have a significantly lower reading ability than first-time offenders, and that a negative correlation best describes the relationship between reading level and recidivism. The effect of poor reading ability often leads to frustration, which in turn, may lead to delinquent behavior. The results of this study can be used in association with other reliable research to ultimately reduce the number of repeat offenders in our jail and prison systems.

Behavioral Dysfunctions Resulting from
Frontal Lobe Damage: A Case Study

Bethany K. Gaddis
Colorado College

The present study tracked the recovery and rehabilitation of 1 traumatically brain injured patient through therapy sessions, and by examining doctor reports and neuropsychological testing in the acute rehabilitation unit at Penrose Hospital in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The patient, a 26-year-old male, was admitted with a left temporal contusion, subarachnoid hemorrhage, bitemporal skull fractures, and subsequent bifrontal subdural hygromas. He displayed perseveration and communication disturbances in daily interaction and neuropsychological tests. It was hypothesized that these deficits were the result of frontal lobe damage. The present case study was undertaken to link specific brain damage to the subsequent behavioral dysfunctions. With continued social support and outpatient therapy sessions, the prognosis was for a good recovery.

This is an exciting time regarding the understanding of the mechanisms of action of cocaine and the identification of possible medications to treat cocaine addiction and withdrawal. Several mechanisms of action are implicated to mediate cocaine's effects including the blockade of neurotransmitter reuptake proteins, nitric oxide, glutamate sensitization, protein kinases A and C, vigabatrin (an irreversible inhibitor of GABA transaminase), the anti-epileptic drug, gabapentin, blockade of L-type calcium channels as well as the blockade of serotonin receptors. Considerable research has recently focused on the development of a vaccine to cocaine. This approach to treat cocaine addiction could possibly result in an effective remedy. The goal of this therapy is to prevent individuals addicted to cocaine from experiencing relapse. Ideally, an immunized person who self-administers cocaine will be physiologically unable to experience the rewarding effects of cocaine as the vaccine will destroy much of the ingested dose of cocaine before it is able to enter the brain to activate reward processes. Lastly, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of possible anti-cocaine medications in the treatment of cocaine dependence.

Fairleigh Dickinson University A major psychoactive drug found in soft drinks, tea, coffee, headache medications, and chocolate candy is caffeine. For this reason, caffeine is the most consumed drug in the world. The objective of this review is to present an overview of caffeine's effects and, therefore, build a basis to evaluate whether caffeine may be best considered as an harmless additive and effective medication or as a compound with increasing potential to contribute to addictive brain processes.

The purpose of this overview is to examine caffeine intake, effects, and to determine whether caffeine can induce dependence. A historical view of caffeine and physiological responses to caffeine are summarized. Evidence from several studies regarding caffeine's ability to act as a reinforcer, caffeine withdrawal syndrome, caffeine tolerance and caffeine dependence are discussed. The conclusion is caffeine dependence does exist and can pose a problem for some users.

Any comments or questions? Please write to Dr. Dan Calcagnetti at [email protected]